Violence As an End in Itself: Categorising the Ideologies of Axel Rudakubana as Mixed, Unclear and Unstable (MUU)

Abstract

This working paper examines the Southport attack committed by Axel Rudakubana and argues that the absence of a single, identifiable extremist ideology should not preclude understanding such violence through a terrorism framework. Drawing on evidence from the Prevent Learning Review, the Southport Public Inquiry, Home Office data, practitioner experience, and emerging scholarship on mixed, unclear, and unstable (MUU) ideologies, the paper critiques the prevailing consensus that Rudakubana’s actions were motivated solely by a fascination with violence rather than ideological commitment. It demonstrates that contemporary extremist threats increasingly involve individuals whose beliefs are hybrid, fluid, and difficult to categorise within traditional ideological typologies. The analysis highlights the growing prevalence of MUU cases within Prevent referrals and explores how processes of ideological cross-pollination, selective appropriation of extremist narratives, and admiration for mass violence can contribute to radicalisation. While acknowledging concerns that MUU may function as a residual or conceptually ambiguous category, the paper argues that it provides a useful framework for understanding emerging forms of contemporary extremism. Ultimately, it calls for a reconsideration of how ideology is conceptualised within counter-terrorism policy and practice.